Causes of the Great Depression

Causes of the heavy(p) DepressionMoon Kyung Jung sparing fluctuations are inevitable in any nations that have any kinds of market, industries and more. However, there are forever some unknown situationors that deteriorate the fluctuations. During the 20th century, there were various economic fluctuations including the Great Depression which was triggered by some unknown factors at the time. This depression was considered cardinal of the worst depressions ever set about by some(prenominal) nations during the time. Unemployment rate peaked at 24.9% that many people lost their jobs and decided to give up on their lives.1 Even inflation range sharply fluctuated which made investors to hesitate that whether they should invest or non. The Great Depression affected many nations around the world, including the U.S, and put these nations into smuggled situations. In this paper, there are two sections. First, I go forth talk slightly how the Great Depression started and came to hit the U.S. Also, I will be discussing about some effects the depression brought to the U.S. Lastly, I will talk about how the U.S prudence was recovered and the transition behind it.Falling EconomyIt is hard to prefigure out where it exactly started from, but most countries started to face the depression at the same time.2 Before we discuss about the Great Depression, lets work out at the industrial production of several countries. Before the depression started, many nations reached their peaks of production. During the time, the five major industrialized countries, the United States, Canada, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom, were highly innovative, competitive, and large-investing nations. Among 22 industrialized nations, the United States was not hit by the Great Depression until first twelve countries were tied to the depression.3Most nations that are part of the League of Nations were affected by the depression in similar slipway, but the U.S did not responded in the s ame way. Among these variations, how the United States faced immediate severity of the Great Depression in ways that sharp denounce up in American output is more important.4 The first year for most countries was proficient a common bad year that they faced the average decline in production solo over 9 percent, which was not considered that fearful. Compared to these countries, the U.S faced a huge decline in industrial production, 21 percent in the first year. This fact makes the Great Depression was considered great in the U.S earlier than other nations.5In more depth about the decline in output, the initial fall in production was more focused on consumer goods, while investment goods remained relatively the same unlike other countries.6 However, as this depression continued a few years, most countries were experiencing a greater depression than before. Among these countries, however, the United States was an apparent loser that from the peak to fall in industrial production o f 62 percent, which is a significant number. There was no country that experienced the same magnitude of the decline.7 no., lets talk about the causes of the American depression. Simply, between 1929 and 1933, there were chains of shocks caused the United States aggregate demand to decline repeatedly, which caused the economy down.8 Specifically, the U.S. economy was apparently experiencing downturn in the summer of 1929. However, in the beginning, this downturn was at slow pace. Not surp raisely, the come of this downturn was tightening of supplyeral Reserve policy, which Fed started open market sales of securities in January 1928. 9 Unfortunately, Fed failed to precipitate in the m championy supply because banks sought this as opportunities that they significantly increased their borrowing at the discount window.10 Both nominative and real relate pass judgment dramatically increased due to the interplay of the open market sales and the increased demand for currency and bro kers loans caused by the stock market boom.11Whenever there is rise in care rates, it is assumable that the country will face some kind of negative situations because this rise would make people to save more than investment, which creates imbalance between savings and investments. And this pecuniary policy that causes this significant rise in interest rates was mostly due to the stock market according to Hamilton.12 And the situation deteriorated in October 1929 as the stock market break downed. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York bought significant amounts of government bonds, thus increasing the stock of high-powered money, which made both nominal and real interest rates fall sharply, but was not good enough to hold the depression back. And even bank panics followed up and the real interest rates became consistently high. 13Another feature of the depression is the collapse in domestic consumption consumption which followed the stock market crash. As mentioned earlier, consumer spending play a significant role in the decline of output. 14 The main source of this drop in consumption was the crash market itself. The stock market crash and frequent fluctuations in stock prices created large amount of uncertainties about future income. The fluctuations of stock prices did not always made consumers and investors pessimistic about future, but just uncertain.15 Also, this uncertainty was fostered by forecasts made by analysts of the time that they expressed tremendous uncertainty about their assumptions of the future.16 And yes, it did immediately cut consumers and investors spending on irreversible goods and they patently waited for future information. Fortunately, sellers of essential goods, grocery stores for example experienced rise in their profits, since everyone was restraining themselves from wasting their income. Also, the effect of uncertainty also decreased consumer spending by decrease wealth and by shifting households balance sheets toward illiquid ity.17Lastly, lets talk about last feature that deteriorated the depression. Doubtlessly, last source of the continuous decline in production was a series of banking panics.18 Several panics occurred in sequences that one wave of panics followed by another and so on. In the process, more than 9000 banks were inevitably forced to avert their operations and depositors and stockholders lost roughly $2.5 billion.19 In detail, these banking failures came in many ways. First, the money supply was directly impacted by the bank failures. The ratio of deposits to currency go away significantly because the safety of banks misgave depositors which made them not to save their money to banks. 20 This lack of deposits to the banks sharply reduced the money multiplier and the situation got worse as the Fed has done nothing to increase the stock of high-powered money, which could reduce the effects of this shock in money supply. Also, the financial panics interrupted the intermediation role of ba nks. As the bank failures prevented these banks to help out small businesses that cannot issue stocks or bonds, it became more expensive for other banks to loan to customers from the failed banks, because it required large amounts of transaction costs, which worsened the depression. 21 convalescence from the Great DepressionThere were many factors that deteriorated the depression and it seems unrecoverable. Then what possibly can restore the economy of the United States? There could been many solutions, but one solution at the time was stimulus to aggregate demand, large portion of it was in the form of monetary expansion.22 Before the monetary expansion, there have been many fiscal policies involved to fix the situation, but they were mostly ineffective. The fact that aggregate demand stimulus really brought the recovery was more often than not caused by demand-induced changes in the money multiplier, which make people to spend their money instead of just keeping it under their be d.23Then how did this monetary expansion really took place? The main source of this increase in the money supply of the United States was a large amount of gold inflow began in 1933.24 The rapid rate of the addition was a emergence of gold inflow produced by the revaluation of gold plus the flight of capital to the United States. It was in no way a consequence of the contemporaneous business expansion.25 This increase in gold inflow and revaluation made people to spend more dollars on gold in convert of risk of holding dollars.Another source of the immense movement of funds to the United States was the fast deterioration in the international political situation.26 European citizens largely transferred their funds to the United States due to the increasing threat of a European war which created misgiving of seizure or destruction of wealth by the enemy.27 legion(predicate) economists concluded that Munich and the outbreak of war in Europe were the main factors determining the U. S. money stock, as Hitler and the gold miners had been.28 It is ironic that other countries economic collapses helped the U.S. to restore its economy.To make the argument that monetary expansion was the source of the recovery more plausible, lets look at the transmission mechanism. It is widely accepted that the increase in money supply will decrease the interest rates. First, nominal interest rates fall as the money stock increases. With fixed or rising expect inflation, the fall in nominal interest rates implies a fall in real interest rates. This drop in rates will foster people to buy more of equipment and durable consumer goods because cost of borrowing decreased as interest rates dropped.29During the depression, rise in take and prices were not fully offset by the rapid monetary expansion. If money supply did not grow as fast as the rise in wages and prices, real balances would not have improved and there would have been no force on nominal interest rates, which possibly coul d restrain the restoration. But in fact the money supply did grow at very rapid rate that the prices and wages did not completely amend to the very rapid rates of money growth. This made the real balances to increase while the nominal interest rates fall during the recovery process. Even with these very low nominal interest rates, the economy was not fully recovered yet, but there was no other way to continue the monetary expansion. So, the main way to continue the monetary expansion was to encourage the economy by generating potentials of inflation and thus triggering a reduction in real interest rates. However, consumers and investors believed in the stickiness of price which made them to find that prices would rise ultimately and therefore expected inflation over the not too distant horizon.30In order for monetary expansions to stimulate the economy, not only the real interest rates had to decrease, but there had to be positive respond in investment and other types of interest-s ensitive spending. 31 In fact, the economy responded as expected that there have been sharp increase in fixed investment and the consumption of durable goods. Over the next few years, the spending grew very chop-chop as the real interest rates stayed negative. Although the economy still experienced fluctuations that real interest rates turned significantly positive which disrupted the growth of the economy by restraining the consumption and investment. However, overall the economy was finding its way back to the peak again at very fast rate that spending remained consistently high enough to stimulate the growth.ConclusionThe Great Depression occurred in 1929 around the world indeed led the time into a chaos. Although the Great Depression occurred simultaneously in the industrialized countries, the U.S. depression was quite unique in several ways. Compare to other nations, the U.S. experienced much more severe declines. No country experienced similar magnitude of depression as the U .S. did. Also, the United States depression was started by a decline in consumption in durable goods due, increase bank failures, and sharp rise in interest rates. Since the Great Depression was a worldwide problem so it can be considered international shocks, but it also can be considered as national aggregate demand shocks, only in American perspective, because it had many uniquely American roots. There were many shocks that were internationally dealt, but it was ultimately the U.S. shocks and the U.S. policy choices that determined the path of the America. 32Throughout the depression, the U.S. government tried many things to solve the situation. Yes, in fact the monetary expansion was the important key to the restoration of the United States economy from the depression. On the other hand, fiscal policy did not really help anything during the process and remained ineffective until 1942. Since, many international elements also contributed to the U.S. depression, there had to be som e international elements to get through the situation. In fact, World War II helped the U.S. economy from further deterioration by many Europeans transfer their funds to the U.S. in order to avoid the risk of losing them by the war. Also, the large amount of gold inflow helped the U.S. expansionary monetary developments to be successful in decreasing both nominal and real interest rates, which stimulated the economy and people to spend their money on consumption of durable goods and investments. Also, the very low interest rates helped this positive atmosphere to continue furthermore and in fact the U.S. economy successfully recovered from the depression. 33Although the Great Depression was successfully overcome, it is still doubtful that other depressions can be handled in the same way. Future research and more data is mandatory to confirm and confidently conclude that the actions took during the Great Depression was the most efficient and effective options.ReferencesThe Nation in Depression.Christina D. Romer, The daybook of stinting Perspectives, American sparing Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.What finish the Great Depression?Christina D. Romer, The ledger of frugal Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-7841 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The daybook of scotch Perspectives, American economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.2 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The journal of stinting Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.3 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.4 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.5 The Nation in Depression. Chris tina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.6 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.7 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.8 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.9 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.10 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.11 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Rom er, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.12 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.13 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.14 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.15 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.16 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.17 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.18 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.19 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.20 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.21 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.22 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78423 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Jo urnal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78424 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78425 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78426 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78427 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78428 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78429 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspec tives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78430 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-78431 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D.Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol.52, No.4 (Dec., 1992), pp.757-78432 The Nation in Depression. Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, Vol. 7 No. 2 (Spring, 1993), pp. 19-39 Printed.33 What Ended the Great Depression? Christina D. Romer, The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1992), pp. 757-784

History of the Tudor Dynasty

History of the Tudor DynastyThe Tudor dynasty held the throne of England from 1485 to 1603. In this interval accomplished deuce revolutions of paramount importance first, Britain became the first of the Protestant powers, and secondly, she became a maritime and colonial power. enthalpy VII, plungeer of the dynasty, presided over the rebuilding of the fagotdom, while his son, Henry VIII, consumed his savings endeavor to solve intractable problems in diplomacy, that of the European balance, in religion, that of Catholicism without the pope in administration, that of good finances without honesty. Edward VI opened the way for Protestantism, whose progress was repress by bloody shame Tudor with an implacable rigor rendering him powerless.Elizabeth I, fin on the wholey, gathered deftly around her statesmen and advisors, making the symbol of an official religion in accord with the average opinion of his rude and attempted to resolve the major international issues.King Henry VIIIRefo rms in the British church building were first conducted by Henry VIII more precisely the attachment of Bishops to the face crown King Henry VII was eager for bills, his father had increased the fortune of the English crown by taking the land of noble deaths during the War of the Roses, Henry VIII sought to take those of the Church.At that time the Church had a real important role (one of the largest in the country) and was increasing the discontent of the people because of king s opulent lifestyle. The independence of the Archbishop of Canterbury and bishop s vis- -vis the kings, Henry VIII also found it impossible to tame the Pope because the kings of France and Spain were much more powerful than him. Henry VIII wanted to further centralize the power.(Guy, 245)He divorced one of his sextette women bishops attached to the crown of England. Indeed, in 1526, Henry VIII asked the Pope to divorce Catherine of Aragon, niece of Charles V King of Spain, because she did not have a son but the Pope, being under the influence of the King of Spain, disavowd. In 1531, Henry VIII decided to ignore this prohibition and managed to convince the Archbishop of Canterbury and the bishops to attach themselves to him. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy was passed by parliament and Henry VIII became head of all bishops of the estate. From the date of this act, all the kings of England became the head of the English Church leaving the pope with no authority.Henry VIII, with the back up of Thomas Cromwell, then made use of the Domesday Book to take control of apparitional taxes he shut down 560 monasteries and gave their land to the middle classes. This allowed him to raise money for allied merchant classes and landowners, many small gentlemen farmers started making a fortune with this.Also note that the Reformation of the Church had nothing much to do with the comer of Protestantism while Henry VIII broke away from the pope, he still remained deeply Catholic. He even grumbled t hat the Protestants were not loyal to him. He wrote a keep critical of Martin Luther, praised by Pope, entitled Defender Fidei (Defender of the Faith or FD that is still found on the coins).Henry VIII crushed all Catholic rebels who would refuse to use the services of the new religion. The monasteries were emptied and sold, and their wealth was confiscated by the state. Thus, the King confirmed the English Reformation. Yet, finished the reigns of Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I , daughters of Henry VIII, the Catholic answer turned bloody, even if the Anglican Church was not called into question . Catholics opposed the system rejecting the reforms of Henry VIII altogether.On 11 July, Henry was excommunicated in capital of Italy and subsequently he answered a call to a future council. A protest of public pity, that of Elizabeth Barton, the holy maid of Kent was rigorously suppressed. Now, war was declared with Rome, Henry VIII, with nothing to spare, ordered that the Pope would be appoi nted in the future as the bishop of Rome, the bishops would be appointed without the intervention of the Holy See , that church building building would at long last be answerable to the Royal Court of Chancery (Anglicanism).Thomas More and Bishop Fisher were imprisoned, the preachers were released throughout the kingdom to speak against the Pope and the King and all the monks were invited to mark the declaration that the bishop of Rome did not more authority in England than any foreign bishop, on pain of punishment similar to those that struck the Franciscans of the Observance. In November 1534, the king added to his titles, according to the wishes of parliament, that of arrogant Head of the English Church. Deny its supremacy became a crime. It was also a crime of high treason to call it heretical or wish that he, Anne Boleyn, or their children were deprived of the crown.The year 1535 saw a terrible persecution start, under new laws (Treason laws). The monasteries of Charterhous e and Sion troop of martyrs, chained to Newgate, hung, quartered at Tyburn. Fisher, stripped by the Supreme Head of the bishopric of Rochester, was elevated to cardinal by Pope Paul III. Henry VIII had him executed, and his head rot for several days in the knock down of London Bridge. She was soon replaced on the hook by that of Thomas More. This year 1535 and the next date as the two campaigns led by Cromwell, Vicar-General of the supreme leader, for the forbiddance of the monasteries and destruction of images. In October, the famous doctors Bedyl, Legh, Layton, London, Petre, etc. The beginning of a visitation of all the monasteries of the kingdom was also marked. They were men of bad character, known for their greed, their hardness, coarseness, as prove by their correspondence. E verywhere they gathered to gossip and pretended to see the outrageous, secret debauchery. In four months (very short time they had carried out care to the full to a salutary inquiry), they amassed a Black book material which was presented to Parliament in 1536 to support a proposal by the crown for the total abolition small monasteries and conveyancing their property to the king.He opposed Luther in asserting that Christs righteousness was imputed to men, nor was it given only to those who had faith that the justification of rights could be acquired by the practice of the virtues of faith, charity and hope, and through repentance and the fear of God, with well-nigh effort on the part of man in the exercise of his free will, which was denied by Martin Luther that the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the saints was recommended. The narration of Scripture was closed to the masses from 1546 executions of Lutherans continued until the kings death the following year.Edward VIEdward VI, on his accession to throne was nine years (January 21, 1547) old. His maternal uncle, Hertford, was protector of the kingdom and had himself given the Duchy of Somerset, the brother of Hertford, Si r Thomas Seymour, Lord Admiral and became Seymour of Sudeley. These characters were very much attached to the party of religious reform (Anglican), the young Edward VI divided their sympathies in this regard, in June 1548, and he refrained from making any offering after the Catholic rite at the offertory on Sundays. Ridley and Hugh Latimer were his most favorite preachers, but he listened with pleasure to the Puritan preachers like Hooper and John Knox. Edward VI of England promised a king Puritan, the reformers of all Europe were enthusiastic about his early piety.In April 1551, Calvin sent him a long letter of praise and exhortation. It was the new Josiah. But the learned and fervent devotion was not associated with Edward at the mere natural goodness. He had something in his childishness of deficiency and the hardness of Henry VIII. He was only indifferent to his uncle, the Protector Somerset. While Somerset in 1547 led an expedition against Scotland, his brother, Lord Seymour, treacherously tested to lose it in the spirit of the king.Mary TudorDespite the measures taken by Edward VI to prevent his sister from becoming his successor, the people recognized the make for the rightful queen. To ensure his own royal authority, questioned by the discussions on the validity of the marriage of his parents, but also to meet his personal beliefs Catholic, Mary Tudor, remained faithful to his religion during the reign of his half-brother, wanted to bring his people back to the old religion with a firm hand. She tried to enforce Catholicism again in the kingdom at the price of imprisonment and death sentences.This is the reason here reign is often associate with blood. In so doing, she disregarded the religious situation of his country Catholicism was lifeless, while Protestantism was full of vitality. Advised by his cousin, Emperor Charles V, she inaugurated her reign with moderation, content to repeal the laws of the Church taken in the reign of Edward VI, Cranmer jailing and condemning some of her subjects to exile.(Thomas,134)It would mean no bloody persecution against the Protestants, but it did not take account of the opposition of his people, or resistance of Parliament. To demonstrate her desire to give birth to Catholicism, she conjoin in July 1554, the son of Charles V, Philip, heir to the throne of Spain. This reintegration of solemn Church of England in the bosom of the Roman Church attracted the hatred of many who fomented plots against the royal authority.The arrival of Protestantism in Britain or the threat of Catholic invasion pushed the people to convert when top executive Mary ( ottoman Mary), half-sister of Catherine of Aragon, Catholic, became head of the kingdom after the death of the son of Henry VIII, Edward VI, who died very young in 1553, the kingdom then composed mainly of Catholics (the majority of the people) but an increasing proportion of the population converted to Protestantism (the richest because this new re ligion accept wealth).The position of the Queen Mary was not simple because the kingdom has not experienced female leader for 400 years but Mary attached several errors that resulted in extreme repercussions later on. First, she asked parliament for permission to marry the Catholic King Philip of Spain that compelled disagreeable people to create an uprising. Moreover, the burning of 300 Protestants in five years further aggravated the feud between Catholics and Protestants. Mary died in 1558.For the reinstatement of the Anglican Church to be effective, the big obstacle was the restitution of church property, secularized during the reign of Henry VIII, who had helped some get rich quick. Pope Julius III did not claim this refund, he even sent his legate, Cardinal Reginald Pole, a nephew of Queen Mary, with a mission to give all the English people the full papal absolution. Officially, the authority of Rome was again recognized in the kingdom of England antipapal laws were repealed, Parliament re-enacted the laws against heretics, the bishops called for strong action against all Protestants. The bloody persecution then stood not only against the ecclesiastical dignitaries such as former Archbishop Cranmer, but also against the masses, creating a de facto disgust against Bloody Mary and nourishing a new antipope. The persecution continued with Marys death in 1558.Elizabeth 1Elizabeth Tudor, daughter of Anne Boleyn, was set to succeed her half-sister. Certainly, on the occasion of the investiture of Mary, Elizabeth had confessed the Catholic faith and promised to defend the true religion, but because of criticism that she opposed the Catholics, accusing her mothers marriage to Henry VIII, Elizabeth which was not affected personally by religious issues but had to promote Protestantism. More skilful politician than her sister, she worked to avoid alienating any of her subjects, the Catholics and Protestants.Elizabeth I, half-sister Mary and Protestants became hea d of the kingdom because there was no other descending(prenominal) of the Tudors in 1558. She wanted to reconcile the English among themselves on religious issues and succeeded in 1559 to admit Protestants to two conditions (1) that they are closer to the Catholics of the kingdom as other Protestants continents, (2) that the monarch butterfly remains the sole master of the Church. Elizabeth I undertook many reforms such as the use of Parish (territorial organization of the Church) as an administrative division of the kingdom, the obligation to go to church every Sunday under penalty of law, and finally re-wrote Mass sermons with regard to the attack to the king as a Pechet. Thus, the Church and its representatives had then become fully part of the machinery of state power.(Turton,76)Finally, the English Protestantism completely took off in 1585 with the execution of Mary Queen of Scottish in 1587. In fact, Mary Queen of Scots (different from the Queen Mary of England died in 1558 ) fled to England because she was persecuted in his kingdom of Scotland but this an internal risk in the UK for Elizabeth I as English Catholic nobles would replace the Queen prostetante a Catholic, Elizabeth I therefore took the decision to shut Mary Queen of Scots jail. However, the threat of Spanish invasion (Catholic country) that would attach to England and to defend the Queen Mary over the decision to appoint Mary Philip of Spain as his successor led Elizabeth I to marry in order to cut short the threat of Spanish invasion, or to see the Scottish crown from the hands of Spain. The English people joined the Queen Elizabeth I to stand against the growing threat of Spanish invasion.Elizabeth had the big merit of understanding and acting with a wise and slow progression, behaving immediately after her accession to chief of the Church of England, but assumed that the government of this Church and not s never saying the supreme leader the suprerne head as had once been Henry VIII . The Book of Common Prayer was reworked, and reforms of Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury sacred by the ordinal of Edward VI (1559), ended after a series of preparatory measures, the Act of Uniformity (1564), which was made compulsory.In 1558, good spirits still doubted the calamity of the victory of new ideas in England. As wrote the Philip II of Spain, a careful observer (it was Fest, his ambassador in London), that the Catholics were the majority of the people, and if the capital, the country of Kent and seaports adhered to doctrines of the Reformation, the rest of the country remained connected to the Roman religion. But even most young noblemen and universities were also removed from it. Elizabeth I, deep admirer of his father and determined to behave like him in all things, there were valuable auxiliaries in a business it knew how to carry out with prudence, skill, and dexterity truly remarkable. England was weary of the sudden change of religion for nearly 25 years .

Breast Implants Essay -- essays research papers

Breast ImplantsOne of the first uses of silicone in a medical implant came in the form oflifesaving tubes insert into teenage children to funnel excess fluid from thebrain into the chest cavity, where the fluid could be safely metabolized andexcreted. Since these "shunts" were first used, in the late 1950s, silicone invarious forms has pass to be an important part of many implants. "It is used intracheotomy tubes, in artificial lenses for the eye, in artificial heart valvesand in facial implants for sustain defects or re-constructive surgery aftercancer" (Ames 1).     The most widely used implementation of silicone is through breast re-constructive surgery through elective surgery of an individual, or re-constructive surgery to replace breasts due to women recovering frommastectomies from breast cancer or miscellaneous types of accidents.     The early history and use of implants showed no ill effects of the useof paraffin or silicone. Because of this newly developed surgical process andrelatively little use of FDA guidelines there was no all-inclusive testing doneto ensure the utmost safety of a silicone recipient.     By this time the millions of women throughout the world who already hadDows silicone prosthesis implanted into their breasts had no idea of thedramatic health risks. Because of these potential health risks, women shouldavoid the use of breast implants.          In 1976, Congress gave the FDA authority to regulate breastimplants. By this time breast implants had been in use for a          significant amount of time and were considered "grandfathered."This means that they were allowed to remain on the market, even though theyhave not gone through stringent testing. The FDA felt there was no evidence tosubstantiate that the implants were harmful. Furthermore Congress also gave theF DA the power to go back and get hold of manufactures to provide proof that theimplants were indeed safe and effective, if it was felt that there was a reasonto do so. (Bruning 7)     "In 1977, Richard Mithoff, a Houston attorney, wins the first lawsuitfor a Cleveland adult female who claims that her ruptured impla... ...s      internal memos, thousands of these memos revealed lack of long termtesting, complaints from doctors, and leakage of silicone from the implants.The most outrageous incident discovered was complaints from surgeons ofimplants rupturing in the operating room, as they tried to launch them intowomens breasts (Byrne 98).Pathology reports indicate considerable silicone reaction to the extrudedmaterial can cause severe foreign body reaction in susceptible individuals. A garner written to Dow Corning from Charles A. Vinnick a predominant cosmeticsurgeon in California wrote " I am loathe to publish my series of cases as I looking that it may open Pandoras box. I do feel, however, that rapiddissemination of this information is very necessary to protect your comapny andmy colleagues" (Bryne 98). Vinnick complained to Dow about an incident when heremoved a pair of silicone implants, the gel in a ruptured implant was terriblyrunny while the gel inside the other implant was of ideal cohesion. This discrepancy led him and some others to believe that when silicone gel came intocontact with tissue fluids and fat the gels consistency changed.

Maxine Hong Kingstons Woman Warrior Essay -- Maxine Hong Kingston Wom

Maxine Hong Kingstons Woman WarriorFood vividnessens us, without it we are weak. Eating has always been an important factor with families accompaniment in poor conditions. Often, those who could not help to produce more food are considered inferior or unworthy to eat. Maxine Hong Kingstons The Woman Warrior is no exception, due to the resemblance it creates betwixt consume and the strength of people. This is shown through the tale of Fa-Mu-Lan, the story of the eaters, and the references to the fellow relatives left in China.In the tale of Fa-Mu-Lan, the narrator is given a selection test, where she has to survive a mountain trek without provisions. During that trek, the narrator finds herself weary from aridness. Hunger brings out her animal instincts, because she needs to stay strong to live. On the fourth and fifth days, my eyesight sharp with hunger, I saw deer and used their trails when our ways coincided. Where deer nibbled, I gathered the fungus, the fungus of immortal ity (25). The narrator is forced to search for her food to eat. The hungrier she becomes, the more ferocious she is. Meat also played a role in the connection between food and strength. During the beginning of her story she claimed she no longer needed meat. later she became starving, she breaks down and eats meat. I saw the rabbit had sacrificed itself for me. It had made me a gift of meat (26). Her will was eroded by the hunger because as her hunger increased, she became weaker and her go down was easier to destroy. When the narrator was not starving she was in control of her faculties. Hunger however, strips her even of vision, as she imagines things that do not exist. The narrator says, Hunger also changes the world when eating cant be habit, then neither can seeing. I saw two people made of gold dancing the earths axis (27). Viewing two gold dancers would be wonderful to witness, however the chances are very slim. The hunger had weakened her to the point of confusion, and p ossibly dilution. Just as hunger weakens a person so they cannot command themselves, eating will make a person powerful and the masters of others.The stories of the heroes who ate heaping amounts of food illustrate that those who can eat have extraordinary powers. The narrator says before, that her make is powerfulbecause she can eat anything quick, pluck out the carps eyes, one for... ..., yet Kingston continues to reference the topic throughout the book. In the chapter At the Western Place, Brave orchidaceous plant meets her sister Moon Orchid at the airport. youre so skinny. Youre so fat. modify women are more beautiful than skinny women (118). Brave Orchids bitterness toward American culture influenced the narrator. Fat carried not only excess lipids, it carried wealth and power in Brave Orchids opinion. Women were more beautiful with fat because wealth enabled them to achieve their beauty. The incessant use of references between strength and eating throughout the book show t he narrator was influenced is some manner. The product of the influence may not have been a fat woman, unless a woman educated in two cultures.Eating is vitally important in the memoir The Woman Warrior. It is regarded as a sign of strength in the book. That point is shown through Fa-Mu-Lan, the story of heroes, and through relatives in China. With those, Kingston became educated in two differing cultures, possibly influenced by both. The connection between hunger and strength is well known throughout the ages, as the old military adage states, An Army marches on its stomach.

Cellular Phones :: Mobile Cell Cellular Telephones Phones Essays

Cellular PhonesCellular phones are a phenomenon that has engulfed masses in the nineties. They hit become a common natural event whether you are waiting in line at the super market or in a movie theatre. One professor at Murray conjure up University said, Many students are carrying them, I had a student get a call in the middle of a test last semester. Although many citizenry have accepted the thought of carrying a telephone wherever they go, others have not taken the onslaught of jail cell phones quite so easily. Cell phones have become part of everyday life, and with the dramatic changes that have been made, there is no sign of their existence diminishing. Today, cellular service is available in all 306 metropolitan Statistical Areas across the country and all of the 428 Rural Service Areas. Cellular phones carry a diverse group of users. In June 1985, there were ab pop out 203,000 cellular phone service subscribers. By June 1989, the number had exploded to 2.7 million subscribers, and by June 1995 there were mire than 26 million subscribers. When cell phones were first introduce, only people with a lot of money had them and the service was very expensive. It was a lot cheaper to stop and use the pay phone than it was to use a cell phone. Now, it is nigh as cheap to use a cell phone to make a yearn distance call as it is to make a pertinacious distance call using AT&T. Long distance calling has become a vast market of sales and bribery. A majority of cell phone users have a long distance plan with there cellular package. A lot of college students have cell phones only when to make long distance calls home to their friends and family. Depending on the time of day, a person in Fayetteville, Arkansas can call a person in Dallas, Texas for as lowly as 9 cents a minute. That is very cheap for that type of telephone call. Why have Americans become so attached to cellular phones? Is it convenience, or just the way a person feels driving down the road talking to someone. There is no way to tell. I think it is very important to interpret at the reason Americans buy and use cellular phones. In a survey taken in 1996, Southwestern Bell Cellular asked 5,000 of its users to fill out a survey.

Federal Laws Essay -- essays papers

Federal Laws The federal regulatements stand on inclusion is somewhat indistinct. There are federal laws that govern education of children with disabilities. However, they do not require inclusion, but only that a significant effort be made to find an inclusive placement. The Individuals With Disabilities Education fare (IDEA) was amended in 1997. The term inclusion does not appear in the act, but does require that children with disabilities be educated to the maximum extent appropriate in the least restrictive environment, which is interpreted to mean the invariable education classroom. The intent of IDEA is to educate as many students with disabilities as possible in the rhythmic education classroom (--, 2002.) Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires that tout ensemble recipients of federal funds must provide equal education of each qualified handicapped child in its jurisdiction with people who are not handicapped. Those schools that receive federal fundin g must place the handicapped child in the regular education classroom unless it is demonstrated by the recipient that this type of education with the added use of supplementary aides and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily (Schultz 2001.) administration Cases Court decisions provide guidelines governing placement of the child with special needs under IDEA. There are many court cases finishedout the country involving ch bothenges to placement of students in the least restrictive environment. In the case of Greer vs. Rome City School District in 1992 parents were fighting against the placement of their daughter in a poised special education classroom. The district argued that the costs of providing services in the classroom would be too high. The court ... ...d States of America Pearson Education Group, Inc. Barry, Janet & Wise, B.J. (1997). Fueling inclusion through technology Students with disabilities can rise to new heights with assertive technology Hornby, G. (19 99). Inclusion or delusion Can one size fit all? Support for Learning 14 (4), p.152 Jones, M. Thorn, C., Chow, P., & Wild, C. (2002). Equifinality Parents and students attitudes towards a student-centered approach to integration. Education 122 (3), p.624 Norwich, B. (2002). Education, inclusion and individual differences Recognizing and resolving dilemmas. British Journal of Educational Studies50 (4), p.482 Perkins-Gough, D. (2003). Teaching all students. Educational Leadership 61 (2), p.92 Pi v ik, J., McComas, J., & Laflamme, M. (2002). Barriers and facilitators to inclusive education. Exceptional Children 69 (1), p.97

Free Will in John Miltons Samson Agonistes Essay -- Samson Agonistes

Free Will in John Miltons bull Agonistes John Miltons Samson Agonistes is based on the story of Samson, an Israelite hero in the Old Testament who falls from grace. In this work Milton shapes his version around the issue of accountability, whether Samson or God is responsible for his actions. Milton displays Samsons accountability by contrasting his God- granted strength with his self-effected weakness. When Samson was born, God gave him extraordinary physical strength. The very occurrence that God puts prohibitions on Samson implies that there is an element of free choice. His parents told him that in order to preserve his strength he should not cut his long Nazirite cop or drink alcohol. Therefore Samson has control over his strength and can be held accountable for his deeds. Initially, Samson did not appreciate the gift given to him. Before losing the privilege of his power he was unaware of its significance. He says that God put the strength in his hair in order to show him ho w modest the gift is. Proudly secure, (55) he worried about things that now least afflict him. He regarded his strength as a matter of course because he had never experienced weakness and did not recognize that he was liable to fall.The first time he assumes responsibility for a major decision is when he chooses his wife. He is free to choose the wife he pleases. Nevertheless, he is unaware of the responsibility with which he is confronted. He does not take into account the fatal consequences that could termination from his decision. His marriage to Dalila, a Philistine woman, harms not only himself but also the other Israelites. Samsons decision leads him to blindness and captivity and his people to drive under the rule of the Philisti... ...nistes. When this work was published in 1671, the author did not regard himself as a Calvinist, as he had during most of his life. Instead, he held an Arminian belief, which criticized the Calvinistic view of predestination Arminianism allo wed human decision a role in achieving personal salvation. The belief in predestination makes life seem impossible for every effort would be in vain. Moreover, predestination could serve as an excuse for immoral behavior because we could refuse to bear responsibility for our shortcomings. It is a valuable gift that we are all capable of taking responsibility for ourselves and for the people close to us. We can only hope that everyone will be brave liberal to make good use of this gift.Works CitedMilton, John. Samson Agonistes. In John Milton Complete Poems and Major Prose. Ed. Merritt Y. Hughes. New York Macmillan, 1957.